Modern Gymnastics and the German 'Forty Eighters'
| OKTOBERFEST |
|
|
| Mount Angel Sept 12 - 16 |
The German Turnverein
| Below: Richard McDonald's Gymnast |
 |
| In 1848, the people of Europe arose against the monarchs who caled themselves 'the Holy Alliance'. After many years, the uprising was repressed and a good number of those involved fled to this country - many in the Midwest. Kurt Vonnegut's great grandfather Clemens was one of them. It was he who introduced physical education into Indianapolis school classes. Arriving in the East and spreading westward just as the Chinese American refugees from the similar Taipeng Rebellion (click here) were arriving in the west and spreading east, some 60 of these Germans - including Max Friendly, Joe Gerhardt, and Clara Beckhardt - settled in Benton County. Others in Mount Angel, and nearly 700 in Multnomah County. With them they brought their traditions, their Roman Catholic monasteries, Lutheran churches, festivals, gymnastic schools and their fierce antislavery traditions. 160,000 of these German immigrants fought in the Union armies in the Civil War, in 'the Second War for Liberty, as they referred to it. |
The German Turnverein (Gymnastic Clubs)
Founded amid the nationalist enthusiasms of the War of Liberation (against
Napoleon), the German gymnastic movement, or Turnverein, had fundamentally
changed by the time of the 1848 revolutions in the German lands. Although
Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, the gymnasium instructor who had originated
the idea of nationalist gymnastics in Berlin in 1811, was still venerated in the
organization, his anti-Semitism, hatred of the French, and loyalty to the
Hohenzollern dynasty left him out of step with an organization committed to
national unification and political liberalism. While the Turnverein's
ideological stance reflected the prevailing spirit of the German Vormärz,
it also bespoke the peculiar circumstances of the organization's history. The
German Confederation of Metternich had viewed the patriotic enthusiasms of the
War of Liberation with suspicion and had banned the Turnverein
following the murder of the conservative journalist August von Kotzebue by the
young student Karl Sand in 1819. Turnverein practice areas had been
closed, the apparatus dismantled, and the leaders prosecuted. Jahn himself had
been imprisoned at the Kolberg Fortress until 1825, and barred from teaching or
gymnastic work after his release. This period, which Jahn called the Turnsperre,
lasted in Prussia and most German states until the 1840s.
The lifting of the Turnsperre in the more liberal atmosphere of the 1840s reawakened the Turnverein to a vigorous new life. The center of the revived movement shifted out of Prussia, which had been its heartland under Jahn's leadership, to the South and West German States, where the Turnsperre had generally been shorter and less restrictive. The membership of the new clubs was more inclusive, as the core of students and academics which had made up the rank and file of the Turnverein in its early years was joined by a large contingent of craft workers, along with many Jewish members, often in positions of leadership. These gymnastic clubs were often closely aligned with workers' organizations and democratic clubs with whom they shared a desire for reform and a rejection of traditional hierarchies.
In contrast to the organization Jahn had founded, almost
one-half of the membership on the 1840s were non-gymnasts, the so-called
"Friends of Turnen," and because of this, the new clubs
engaged in more non-gymnastic activities, such as funding libraries and reading
rooms, and sponsoring lectures, often of a politically liberal nature. They
joined the new volunteer firemen's movement, and acted as a police force during
the outbreaks of social unrest which characterized the revolutionary period.
Spread throughout the geographic area of Germany, this more diverse gymnastic movement staged larger and more elaborate gymnastic festivals, which sometimes lasted several days and always culminated with a pledge for national unity. In an effort to realize this unity on a gymnastic level, an all-German gymnastic union was formed in April 1848, shortly after revolution had swept the German Confederation. Established as a demonstration of support for the Frankfurt Parliament, the new league was immediately controversial not the least because its avowed purpose, "to work for the unity of the German people and to uplift the brotherhood and the physical and spiritual power of the people," failed to mention gymnastics. Impatient with the cautious program of the German Gymnastic Union, a group of radical clubs formed a second, rival union called the "Democratic Gymnastic Union," and further schisms followed.
Given the radicalization of the movement in the 1840s, it is not surprising that the German gymnasts were directly involved in the 1848 revolutions. Turnverein leaders won renown for their leading roles in local uprisings, among them Gustav Struve in Baden, Otto Heubner in Dresden, and August Schärttner in Hanau. One Turnverein leader who was not in the forefront of radical change was Turnvater Jahn. Elected as a representative to the Frankfurt Parliament, Jahn was given honor, but no real influence, in the revived gymnastic movement.
Although a proposal to form a "Gymnastic Army" (Turnerschar) to supplement the National Guard was never realized, gymnasts manned barricades and participated in crucial fighting during the revolutions. Early in the revolutionary period, the eighty-odd members of the Kiel Turnverein took arms against Denmark in the conflict over Schleswig-Holstein. Although soon defeated, their actions won praise from moderates in the organization who contrasted their "unpolitical" dedication to the cause of the nation with the more radical social and political programs of gymnasts in other regions. Exemplifying this latter trend were the gymnasts in the mob that murdered Prince Felix Lichnowsky and General Hans von Auerswald in Frankfurt in September 1848, during a popular protest against the armistice with Denmark, and those who fought, often in the club uniform, to defend the city of Dresden against Prussian forces in May 1849. Turnverein clubs also participated in the veneration of Robert Blum, who had been killed by counter-revolutionary forces in Vienna, by holding services in his honor, marching in memorial parades, and helping to raise money for his family.
The Turnverein as an organization was most closely associated with the uprisings in Baden, the center of the radical sentiment in southwest Germany. Gymnasts had been among the defenders of the city of Freiburg in early disturbances in the province in April 1848. In the late spring and early summer of 1849, violence erupted again and brought about some of the most prolonged fighting of the revolutionary period. After agitation for a democratic nation-state had forced the Grand Duke to flee, other German states, led by Prussia, sent in troops to crush the movement. The gymnastic organization of the Rhineland province of Hanau organized a march to Baden to defend the province. Although this force gathered around 600 men along the way, it was poorly armed and led and easily outmatched by the regular armies it encountered. About 240 survivors of this effort managed to cross into neighboring Switzerland, where they received a hero's welcome from Swiss gymnasts and students.
The aftermath of the 1848 revolutions devastated the German gymnastic movement. Clubs were disbanded, property confiscated and leaders lost to jail or exile. The various attempts to form a union of gymnastic clubs likewise fell victim to the Reaction. In these circumstances, the Turnverein turned away from politics to concentrate on its gymnastic program. It was only with the revival of the drive for German unification in the late 1860s, that the gymnastic movement rediscovered its purpose and was able to regain the momentum of the revolutionary era.
-Claire E. Nolte
Following are links for the Forty Eighters;
Absolutism Reinhard Blänkner Affre, Denis-Auguste Harrigan, Patrick d'Agoult, Marie Nilan, Kathleen M. Albert (Alexandre Martin) Castelli, Helen Alecsandri, Vasile Michelson, Jean T. Almanacs Gosselin, Ronald Alsace McCoy, Rebecca Anneke, Mathilde Franziska Wagner, Maria Antonelli, Cardinal Giacomo (1808-1876) Coppa, Frank J. April Laws, Hungarian Urban, Aladar. Artisan Movement Hachtmann, Rüdiger. Artisans in Franconia Selig, Robert Association Sheridan, George Aston, Louise Friedrichsmeyer, Sara L'Atlier Cook, Bernard Ateliers nationaux des femmes DeGroat, Judith Attwood, Thomas Sandiford, Keith A. P. Australian Perceptions of Revolutions Jack, Sybil M. Austrian Reichstag Smith, Leonard Austrian Constitution of the Reich Hildebrandt, Günther Austrian Reichstag (Peasant Duties) Himka , John-Paul Axente, Ioan (Sever) Michelson, Paul E. d'Azeglio, Massimo Taparelli Delzell, Charles Babouvism Vandervort, Bruce Bachellery, Josephine Rogers, Rebecca. Baden Lee. Loyd Balbo, Cesare Delzell, Charles Balcescu, Nicolae Berindei, Dan Banditry Harrigan, Partick Banska Stiavnica Unrest Skvarna, Dusan Barbès, Auguste Vandervort,Bruce Barit, George Keith Hitchens Barnutiu, Simeon Keith Hitchens Bavaria James G. Harris Belgian Electoral Law Rooney, John W. Jr. Belgiojoso-Trivulzi, Princess Christina Brown, Dorothy D. Belgium Gooch, Brison and Rooney, John W. Bem, Józef Zachariasz Pekacz, Jolanta Berlin, Storming of the Armory Bleiber, Helmut Bismarck, Otto von Hoffman, J. H. Blanc, Jean-Joseph-Charles-Louis Cox, Marvin Blanqui, Auguste Philbeam, Pamela M. Bloudek, Bedich Skvarna, Dusan Blum, Robert Reinalter, Helmut. Boliac, Cezar Bucur, Marin Bratianu Brothers Apostol Stan and Paul E. Michelson Brentano, Lorenz Lee, Loyd E. Brunetti, Angelo Nussdorfer, Laurie Buchez, Philippe-Joseph-Benjamin Gargan, Edward Büchner, Georg Reinalter, Helmut Bugeaud, Thomas-Robert, Marshal Gooch, Brison Büchner, George Reinalter, Helmut Bucovina Platon, Gh Bulgarian Uprising Kalembka, Slawomir Buteanu, Ioan Michelson, Paul E. Buol-Schauenstein, Carl Ferdinand von Ausetnsen, Roy Cabet, Etienne Philbeam, Pamela M. Carnot, Lazare Hippolyte Harrigan, Patrick Carnot Bill Rogers, Rebecca Catholic Association of Germany Yonke, Eric Cattaneo, Carlo Lovett, Clara M. Cavaignac, Eugène de Luna, Frederick Cavour, Count Camillo Benso di (1810-1861) Coppa, Frank J. Champs-de-Mars Demonstration Peter Mc Phee Chartism Sandiford Keith A. Central March Revolution Alliance Weber, Rolf Central Union of German Democrats Weber, Rolf Charbonnerie Spitzer, Alan B. Charles Albert Reinerman, Alan Church in France Harrigan, Patrick Chrzanowski, Wojciech Pekacz, Jolanta & Alan Reinerman Cipariu, Timotei Keith Hitchins Civil Liberties and the Revolutions Goldstein, Robert Claims of the Slovak Nation Skvarna, Dusan. Clubs Amann, Peter H. Communist Demands Schmidt, Walter Communist Manifesto Schmidt, Walter Compagnonnage Aldrich, Robert Congress of the Slavs in Prague Pekacz, Jolanta Conservative Resistance, France Kale, Steven D. Considerant, Victor Prosper Vandervort, Bruce Cournet, Frederick Constant Vandervort, Bruce Court Clique (Camarilla) Canis, Konrad Cracow Revolution of 1846 Pekacz, Jolanta Cremieux, Adolphe Kale, Steven D. Crowd Politics in the Hungarian Revolution Freifeld, Alice Cuza, Alexandru Ion 1820-1870 Bobango and Michelson Czajkowski, Michal, Sadyk Pasha Pekacz, Jolanta Czartoryski, Prince Adam Jerzy Berry, Robert Dahlman, Friedrich Christoph Sharfman, Glenn R Danubian Confederation Wilson, Samuel J. Dembinski, Henryk Pekacz, Jolanta Deroin, Jeanne Moon, S. Joan Diepenbrock, Melchior Yonke, Eric S. Dittmar, Louise (1807-1884) Herzog, Dagmar Divorce in France Plott, Michèlle Dragos, Ioan Neamtu, Gelu Dresden Weber, Rolf Drink Question Haine, W. Scott Droste-Hülshoff, Annette v. Friedrichsmeyer, Sara Dupanloup, Felix-Antoine-Philibert Harrigan, Patrick Durando, Giovanni Hughes, Steven C. Ebner-Eschenbach, Marie von- Wagner, Maria Ecole Polytechnique Vandervort, Bruce Elssler, Fanny Wagner, Maria Employment and the Revolution of 1848 in France Bonin, Hubert Economic Crisis in Germany Hachtmann, Rudger Erfurter Union Weber, Rolf The European Revolutions of 1848 and 1989: A Comparative Analysis Goldstein, Robert Falloux Law Harrigan, Patrick Federalism (Italy) Lovett, Clara M. Feminist Press in France Moon, S. Joan Ferdinand II 1810-1859 Cummings, Raymond Ferrari, Guiseppi Lovett, Clara M. Ficquelmont, Karl Ludwig Count von Rock, Kenneth W. Flanders Rooney, John W., Jr Flocon, Ferdinand Mc Phee, Peter Filangieri, Carlo Cummings, Raymond Franconia Selig, Robert France: Constitution of 1848 de Luna, Frederick France: Education Harrigan, Patrick France, Financial Crisis and the 1848 Revolutions Bonin, Hubert France: Peasants Crewbow, Yvonne Frankfurt Parliament Election Mattheisen, Donald Frauen-Zeitung Joeres, Ruth-Ellen B. Frederick William IV Barclay, David French Colonies Aldrich, Robert French Economic Situation Crewbow, Yvonne French Presidential Election (1848) de Luna, Frederick French Provisional Government de Luna, Frederick French Women Insurgents Barry, D.H. Fuller, Margaret, Marchesa Ossoli Huffman, Joan B. Frost, John Sandiford, Keith A. P Gabor, Aron Michelson, Paul E. Gagern, Heinrich von Mattheisen, Donald. Gaj, Ljudevit Skvarna, Dusan Galicia Revolution Pekacz, Jolanta Garibaldi, Giuseppe (1807-1882) Coppa, Frank J. Gay, Desirée Riot-Sarcey, Michelle German Democrats Reinalater, Helmut German Political Parties Reinalater, Helmut German Revolution and Historiography in the German Democratic Republic Flynn, John Germany, September Crisis 1848 Bleiber, Helmut Ghica, Ion Michelson, Paul E. Geissel, Johannes Yonke, Eric S. Gioberti, Vincenzo Delzell, Charles Golescu, Alexandru G-Negru/Arapica Iordache, Anastasie Gorgey, Artur Wilson, Samuel J. Great Britain Sandiford, Keith A. P. GreatPolish Emigration Kalembka, Slawomir Grossdeutschland Sharfman, Glenn R. Guilds Hachtmann, Ruuml;dger Günther, Anton Yonke, Eric Harney, George Julian Sandiford, Keith A. P. Hecker, Friedrich Franz Karl Lee, Loyd Heliade, Ion Radescul Bucur, Mavin Heltman, Wiktor Lech, Urszula J. D'Hericourt, Jenny P. Offen, Karen Herwegh, Georg Büttner, Wolfgang Hesse-Cassel Menning, Ralph Hirscher, Johann Baptist Yonke, Eric S. Hôtel Lambert Pekacz, Jolanta Hübner, Joseph Austensen, Roy Hugo, Victor Haine, W. Scott Hurmuzachi Brothers Michelson, Paul E. Investment and the 1848 Revolution Bonin, Hubert Iancu, Avram Hitchens, Keith Ilarian, Alexandru Papiu Neamtu, Gelu Ionescu de la Brad, Ioan Michelson, Paul E. Italy: Constitutions and Parliaments Noether, Emiliana Italians in the Austrian Army Sondhaus, Lawrence Jacoby, Johann Weber, Rolf Jellacic, Ban Josif Smith, Brian Jewish Emancipation, 1848 Sharfman, Glenn R. John Baptist Joseph von Habsburg Smith, Leonard Jones, Charles Ernest Sandiford, Keith A. P. Jordan, Sylvester Menning, Ralph Journeymen (Germany) Hachtmann, Rüdger Journeymen's Congresses Hachtmann, Rüdger June Days Castelli, Helen Kettler, Bishop Weber, Rolf Kindergarten Allen, Ann T. Kinkel, Johanna Bartels, Almuth Kladderadatsch Allen, Ann T. Kogalniceanu, Mihail Michelson, Paul E. Krai', Janko Skvarna, Dusan Kübeck, Karl Friedrich von Rock, Kenneth W. Kudlich, Hans Prinz, Friedrich Lammannais, Hugues-Felicite Rovert de Cook, Bernard Lamartine, Alphonse de Castelli, Helen Lamorciere, Louis Christophe de Gooch, Brison Laurian, Auguste Treboni Michelson, Paul League of Italian States Miller, Marion Legouve, Ernest Offen, Karen Lemmonier, Elisa (1805-1865) Clark, Linda L. Leopold I Rooney, John W. Jr. Leroux, Pierre Sheridan, George Lewald, Fanny Ward, Margaret Liebelt, Karol Matusik, Przemyslaw Liberalism (Germany) Reinalter, Helmut Liptov Demands Skvarna, Dusan Lithuanian Youth Fraternity Matusik, Przemyslaw Louis Napolean Bonaparte Black, Shirley Lombardy-Venetia Grab, Alexander Lovett, William Sandiford, Keith A. Macchi, Mauro Lovett, Clara Maiorescu, Ioan Michelson, Paul E. Majlath, Johann Skvarna, Dusan Mameli, Goffredo Miller, Marion Manin, Daniele Cunsolo, Ronald March Revolutions (Germany) Rolf Weber March Revolution in Vienna Rolf Weber Marie, Alexandre de Sainte George Heywood, Olena Marrast, Marie Cox, Marvin Mathy, Karl Lee, Loyd E. Manin, Daniele Cunsolo, Ronald Mazzini, Guiseppe Noether, Emiliana P. Milan, The Five Days of Grab, Alexander Michelet, Jules Northcutt, Wayne Mieroslawski, Ludwik Pekacz, Jolanta Military Reform Lee, Loyd E. Mickiewicz, Adam Bernard Pekacz, Jolanta Montanellli, Giuseppe Noether, Emiliana Montez, Lola Wagner, Maria Muresianu, Andrei Mandruti, Stelian Murgu, Eftimie Michelson, Paul E. Music: Italy 1848-49 Miller, Marion Meysenbug, Malwida Rivalier Tomachewsky, M. National Guard (France) Vanderort, Bruce National Guard (Papal States) Hughes, Steven C. National Council (Rada Narodowa)in Lwow Pekacz, Jolanta Negri, Costache Michelson, Paul E. Neue Rheinische Zeitung Schmidt, Walter Niboyet, Eugene Riot-Sarcey, Michèle Non-Historic Peoples Himka, John-Paul O'Brien, James Bronterre Sandiford, Keith A. P. October Revolution in Vienna Hildebrandt,Günther Otto-Peters, Louise Joeres, Ruth-Ellen Papal States (pre-1848) Glueckert, Leopold Papal States: Political Prisoners Glueckert, Leopold Pape-Carpantier Clark, Linda Parma Reinerman, Alan J. Peasant Agitation in Italy Sarti, Roland Peasants in Franconia Selig, Robert A. Pecqueur, Constatin Vandervort, Bruce Pepe, Gugliemo Hughes, Steven C. Otto-Peters, Louise Joeres, Ruth-Ellen B. Petitions (Germany) Harris, James F. Pius Association Yonke, Eric S. Plebian's Union Matusik, Przemyslaw Pope Pius IX Coppa, Frank J. Police Regulation, Working Class Life Haine, W. Scott Polish Committee in Paris Lech, Urszla J. Polish Democratic Society Pekacz, Jolanta Polish League Molik, Witold Polish National Committee (West Prussia) Pekacz, Jolanta Political Mobilization (France) Haine, W. Scott Popular Culture (France) Haine, W. Scott Popular Culture (Germany) Mattheisen, Donald J. Popular Militias Lee, Loyd E. Popular Participation (Italy) Miller, Marion Potrowski, Gustaw Molik, Witold Rising in Poznan Molik, Witold Prague June Rising Püschner, Manfred Prague, Upheavals in Cohen, Gary Prokesch-Osten Anton von Austensen, Roy Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph Vincent, Steven Prussia Mattheisen, Donald J. Prussia, Coup d'Etat Canis, Konrad Prussian Assembly Mattheisen, Donald J. Public Housing (France) Scholz, Mark. Pumnul, Aron Michelson, Paul.E. Radlinsky, Andrej Skvarna, Dusan Radowitz, Joseph Maria von Hoffman, J. H. Rajacic, Josif Smith, Brian Raspail, François Weiner, Dora B. Rechberg, Johann Bernhard, Count von Rock, Kenneth W. Reconciliation, Theory of Hoffman, Jürgen Revolutionary Tradition (France) Piette, Christine Risorgimento Noether, Emiliana P. Risorgimento (Newspaper) Noether,Emiliana P. Roland, Pauline Mc Phee, Peter Roman Republic Noether, Emiliana P. Romanians and Serbs in 1848 Mindrut, Simon International Status of Romanian Lands Jelavich, Barbara Rosetti, C.A. (1816-1885) Bucur, Marin Roth, Stephan Ludwig Gyemánt, Ladislau Ruge, Arnold Reinalter, Helmut Russia in 1848 and 1849 Roberts, I.W. Russo, Alecu Michelson, Paul E. Saint-Simon Carlisle, Robert B. Saint-Simonians Carlisle, Robert B. Sand, George Naginski, Isabelle Sardinia-Piedmont, Kingdom of, 1848-1849 Coppa, Frank J. The Saxonians Weber, Rolf Schervier, Frances Ryan, Carol Schleswig-Holstein Price, Arnold Schoelcher, Victor Schmidt, Nelly Segalas, Anais Barry, D.H. Senegal in 1848 Vandervort, Bruce Sentimental Education Gargan, Edward T. Serbia Role in the Vojvodina Mackenzie, David Sieverking, Amalie Prelinger, Catherine M. Silesia, Rustical Alliance Bleiber, Helmut Slavery Emancipation Jennings, Lawrence C. Slovak Newspapers Skvarna, Dusan Slovak Peasants Revolt Skvarna, Dusan Society of Protestant Friends Jensen, Gwendolyn Socialism, Cooperative Moss, Bernard Sophie Frederike von Habsburg Rock, Kenneth W. Spaventa, Silvio Saladino, Salvatore Stafanski, Walenty Molik, Witold Sterbini, Pietro Saladino, Salvatore Streets of Paris Earls, Irene Struve, Amalie Düsar (1824-1862) Herzog, Dagmar Struve, Gustav (1805-1870) Herzog, Dagmar Students of Paris Gallagher, John G. Supreme Ruthenian Council Himka, John-Paul Thiers, Marie-Joseph-Louis-Adolphe Kale, Steven D Tell, Christian Michelson, Paul E. Thomas, Emile Castelli, Helen Transylvanian Saxons Pavel, Teodor Tristan, Flora Nilan, Kathleen A. La Tribune des Peuples Matusik, Przemyslaw Turnverein (Germany) Nolte, Claire Tuscany Noether, Emiliana Two Sicilies, Kingdom of Cook, Bernard United Landtag of 1848-1847 Asmus, Helmut United States and the 1848 Revolutions Roberts, Timothy M. Venice and the Revolution of 1848-1849 Cunsolo, Ronald S. Ventura, Gioacchino Cook, Bernard Victor Emmanuel Noether, Emiliana P. War in northern Italy Sondhaus, Lawrence Wolff, Wilhelm Schmidt, Walter Polish Women Kuk, Leszek Women German Catholic Tomachewsky, M. Women Chartists Thompson, Dorothy Women's Rights in France Moon, S. Joan Caricatures of Women in France Plott, Michèle Woman's College Prelinger, Catherine M. Wurtemberg Mann, Bernhard Wysocki, Jozef Kuk, Leszek Young Ireland Davis, Richard Zasmoyski, Wladslaw Berry, Robert Zitz-Halein, Kathinka Zucker, Jeffrey Zierkowski-Lenoir, Ludwik Berry, Robert Zollverein Price, Arnold